Epigraphy is the study and interpretation of inscriptions engraved on stone, metal, terracotta,
and other durable materials. These inscriptions serve as primary historical records, offering
direct evidence of India’s political, social, economic, and religious life.
The Early Scripts
Aśokan edicts (3rd century B.C.E) are the earliest decipherable
inscriptions, so far available in India. Brāhmī script appearing for the first time
in the Aśokan inscriptions is the mother of all the scripts of the Sanskritic,
Prakritic and Dravidian inscriptions found in different parts of India today.
Another ancient script, which was predominantly used in the north-west of India
is Kharōshṭhī. Kharōshṭhī is a modification of the Aramaic script and it is
written from right to left. It was used in the rock edicts of Aśoka found at
Mānsehra and Shahbazgarhi (in Pakistan) in the North-western part of Aśoka’s
empire. After him, the use of Kharōshṭhī script spread to Mathura region and
was prevalent in the ancient province of Gāndhāra up to the 2nd century C.E.
Scripts Used in India
In north India the Brāhmī script was used over a vast area. Besides Brāhmī, Aśoka’s records are found in Kharōshṭhī, Aramaic and Greek scripts.
With the advent of the ŚakaKshatrapas and the Kushaṇās as political powers in North India, the writing system assumed a definite change due to the use of new writing tools and techniques. Further development of the Brāhmī script and perceivable changes in its evolutionary trend can be discerned during the Gupta period. The Gupta script is considered to be the successor of the Kushāṇa script in North India.
From the 6th to about 10th century C.E., the inscriptions in North India were written in a script which was called by different names like Siddhamātrikā and Kuṭila. From the 8th century C.E., the Siddhamātrikā script developed into Śāradā script in Kashmir and Punjab, into Proto-Bengali or Gauḍi in Bengal and Orissa and into Nāgarī in other parts of North India from the 10th century onwards. The use of Nandināgarī, a variant of Nāgarī script, is mostly confined to the Karnataka region.
In Central India i.e., in Madhya Pradesh, the inscriptions of the Vākāṭakas, and the kings of Śarabhapura and Kōsala were written in what are known as ‘box headed’ characters. It may be noted that the Early Kadambas of Karnataka also employed ‘box-headed’ characters in some of their inscriptions. During the 3rd - 4th century C.E., the script used in the inscriptions of Ikshvākus of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa developed a unique style of letterforms with elongated verticals and artistic flourishes, which did not continue after their rule.
Some of the earliest inscriptions of South India, particularly from Tamil Nadu, which are found engraved on the stone-beds in the caverns, are in Brāhmī script with some additional signs corresponding to certain sounds which are peculiar to the Tamil language. Hence, this script is popularly known as Tamil-Brāhmī. In South India from 7th century C.E., onwards we get a number of inscriptions belonging to the Pallavas, the Chōḻas and the Pāṇḍyas. These records are written in three different scripts called - the Tamil, Vaṭṭeḻuttu and Grantha scripts, the last variety being used to write Sanskrit inscriptions. In the Malayalam region, the Vaṭṭeḻuttu script developed into a still more cursive script called Kōleḻuttu during 14th and 15th centuries C.E. At the same time, the modern Malayalam script developed out of the Grantha script.
The early form of the Telugu-Kannaḍa script is found in the inscriptions of the early Kadambas of Banavāsi and the early Chālukyas of Bādāmi in the West and the Śālankāyana and the early Eastern Chālukyas in the east who ruled the Kannaḍa and Telugu speaking areas respectively during 4th to 7th century C.E.
Languages of the Inscriptions
Although Sanskrit is the oldest language of India as found in the Vedic literature, the language of the earliest written records viz., the Aśokan edicts, is Prakrit. Besides Prakrit, Aśokan edicts are written in Greek and Aramaic languages also. All the edicts of Aśoka engraved in the Kharōshṭhī and Brāhmī scripts are in the Prakrit language. Thus, originally the language employed in inscriptions was Prakrit and Sanskrit was adopted in the inscriptions only at a later period.
After the period of Aśoka, the use of the Prakrit language continued in inscriptions for a few more centuries. In North India, Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit about the end of the 3rd century C.E. while this change took place about a century later in South India. Some of the inscriptions though written in Prakrit language were influenced by Sanskrit and vice-versa. The epigraphs of the Kushāṇa kings are found in a mixture of Prakrit and Sanskrit, while the Mathura inscriptions of the time of Śōḍāsa, belonging to the first quarter of the 1st century C.E., contain verses in classical Sanskrit. From the fourth century onwards, the Guptas came to power. They were great patrons of Sanskrit language and literature and hence Sanskrit became the language of the inscriptions.
In Western India and also in some regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, Prakrit was used till the 4th century C.E., mostly in the Buddhist inscriptions though in a few contemporary records of the Ikshavākus of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa Sanskrit was employed. The inscriptions of Yajña-Śātakarṇi (2nd century C.E.) from Amarāvati are considered to be the earliest Sanskrit inscription from Andhra Pradesh discovered so far. The earlier inscriptions (4th century C.E.) of Śālankāyanas of the Telugu region are in Prakrit, while their later records (belonging to the 5th century C.E.) are written in Sanskrit. In the Kannaḍa speaking area, inscriptions belonging to later Sātavāhanas and Chuṭus were written in Prakrit.
From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit became the predominant language of Indian epigraph. The contemporary rulers of the Guptas, in Central India and part of the Deccan, like the Vākāṭakas, Kadambas and later Gaṅgas of Karnataka and the Pallavas in South India also employed Sanskrit in their inscriptions.
Sanskrit continued to be employed in the inscriptions of all parts of India along with regional languages in the subsequent centuries. At the same time, different regional languages began to appear in inscriptions from different regions. The copper-plate charters of the Pallavas, the Chōḻas, and the Pāṇḍyas are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil languages. Kannada is used in inscriptions dating from about the 5th century C.E., and the Halmiḍi inscription is considered to be the earliest epigraph written in Kannada language. Inscriptions in Telugu language began to appear from the 6th or 7th century C.E., while Malayāḷam made its beginning in inscriptions only from the 15th century C.E.
Neo Indo-Aryan languages like Marāṭhī, Oriya, Hindi, Gujarātī, Bengali appeared in inscriptions at a comparatively later date.
Publications on South Indian Inscriptions
Approximately over a hundred inscriptions have been discovered in a span of over a hundred years by the Epigraphy branch of the Archaeological Survey of India, State Archaeology departments, institutions fostered by old Native states and other private organizations. They include writings on copper-plates, rock surfaces, stone-slabs, pillars, walls of temples or shrines, and even bricks.
South India possesses a large number of temples remarkable for their size and for the enormous wealth of art and architecture rarely found elsewhere in India. The vast number of inscriptions carved on the walls of these monuments are authentic sources of history and a veritable mine of information.
Even after more than a hundred years since the establishment of the epigraphy branch, inscriptions do not yet command the respect and reverence they deserve. Many inscriptions are neglected, damaged, or misused due to lack of awareness.
Inscriptions copied earlier are sometimes no longer available due to displacement, whitewashing, or quarrying activities, especially in Tamil Nadu where early Brāhmī inscriptions are under threat.
Copper-plates containing valuable historical information are often melted for their metal value. Public awareness and proper preservation measures are essential to prevent this loss.
Every citizen has a duty to protect engraved stone slabs, pillars, and temple walls containing inscriptions, ensuring that this shared heritage is preserved for future generations.